1st bit of evidence. Whale sharks spend a lot of time below the surface.  Derrr, I might hear you say, it’s a fish…  Except, it is a fish that spends (or so we thought) a disproportionate amount of time at the surface.  This was based on observation (obviously) and some tagging data, but as the tagging has continued we have learned that in fact they spend much more time out of sight than we thought.  We used to think they were at the surface except for occasional dives, some of which could be very deep, but now we are learning that they may stay deep for significant chunks of their lives, which puts them effectively out of detection range.  And even when they are at the surface, they make such frequent short range dives that subsurface behaviour becomes a big part of their daily pie chart of time use.  This means we need to up the estimates of population by a correction factor that accounts for the portion of time they spend out of sight.  What should that factor be?  Dunno yet, I’ll get back to you after the next conference.

2nd bit of evidence.  Tags and photo ID disagree on connectivity. How groups of whale sharks in different parts of the ocean are connected (or not) is an important question both biologically and for effective conservation measures.  On this matter, two different research techniques disagree somewhat, but they do it in a way that hints at a bigger population.  Satellite tags have shown plenty of evidence of connectivity between different sites in the ocean, sometimes on scales of thousands of miles.  For example, animals tagged in Mexico often show up in Belize, Honduras and the Gulf of Mexico, even Brazil.  And yet, photographic identification databases (the most important is Wildbook for Whale Sharks, formerly ECOCEAN), show surprisingly little connectivity.  Despite over a thousand individual sharks identified in Yucatan Mexico, for example, only a handful have been re-sighted in the other places I just mentioned.  How is this possible if satellite tags show frequent proof positive of connectivity between these locations?  Well, it’s probably because tagging is a “population independent” method, but photo ID is not.  That is, the results of satellite tagging depend only on the movements of the tagged animal and not on the size of the population in either place, whereas the chances of re-sighting a whale shark photographed in one place at another place depends to a large degree on how many sharks there are at the new site.   The lack of photo ID re-sightings suggests that these populations are in fact pretty big, so big that finding that familiar “face in the crowd” actually becomes statistically pretty unlikely.

3rd bit of evidence.  Where are all the ladies at?  The veritable explosion of whale shark science in recent years has been due in large part to the recognition of the phenomenon of whale shark aggregations, or constellations as I now like to call them (you chose it, dear reader).  I’ve written a ton at DSN about the one that occurs in Yucatan Mexico but there are actually at least 12 locations in the world where whale sharks gather in large numbers – always to feed – relatively close to shore.  And those are just the ones we know about.  There are constellations taking place in the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Philippines, Indonesia, Australia, the Seychelles, the Maldives, Mozambique and Tanzania, to name a few, but they all have one thing in common: they are dominated by immature males.  Very consistently so, in fact; nearly all of these selachian sausage-fests show the same 3:1  male:female sex ratio, and the overwhelming majority of animals are immature.  It’s basically an elasmobranch frat party, sans the beer pong.  We know that whale sharks give birth to the genders in a 1:1 split, so you have to ask: where are all the other immature females?  For that matter, where are all the mature animals, both male and female, and where are all the little ones too, under, say, 4 meters?  When you really break it down, we are basing a sizable chunk of whale shark research on one small demographic slice of the whale shark pizza: immature  males.  That’s no way to study a species, and it certainly makes it hard to get a good handle on he global population, when the numbers you are extrapolating from represent such a small segment of the overall population.

Taken together, these bits of evidence suggest that there might be a lot more whale sharks out there than we know of.  Some genetic studies have estimated populations (in the genetic sense this means the number of mature females) between 100,000 and 250,000, which is a LOT more than what we see, especially when you add in the males and immatures of both genders.  But genetic techniques are no substitute for observational data and there we are still sadly lacking.  One one level, this actually gives me a warm inner glow.  I find it both tantalizing and fascinating to think that we are unable to account for perhaps 3/4 of the population of the world’s largest fish.  It’s like the dark matter of the marine megafauna world.  It gives me a strange sense of encouragement that they are out there somewhere, evading our best efforts and proving daily that the ocean still has her fair share of secrets.

“There are things known and there are things unknown, and in between are the doors of perception.” – Aldous Huxley

The post Where are all the ladies at? first appeared on Deep Sea News.

For this week’s ResearchBlogCast I chose the Birky paper after reading about it on the Marmorkrebs blog by Zen Faulkes. You can listen to the ResearchBlogCast at ResearchBlogging.org, where each week Razib Khan, Dave Munger and I discuss a peer-reviewed article from the RB aggregator.

Birky, C., Adams, J., Gemmel, M., & Perry, J. (2010). Using Population Genetic Theory and DNA Sequences for Species Detection and Identification in Asexual Organisms PLoS ONE, 5 (5) DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010609

In many asexual taxa, DNA sequences alone are used to detect and assign species, but this is only meaningful in the context of a well-defined species concept that you are blatant about operating under. I say “operating under” because I personally feel that scientists need to recognize that different species concepts are useful under different scenarios or for different taxa. This is called pluralism in the species concept literature. Many biologist from the ecology and evolutionary biology are not forthcoming about what species concept(s) they are operating under when they write up their results.

The new framework being proposed draws on previous work by the authors characterizing the mode of speciation in bdelloid rotifers. They updated their model to make it more general to other asexually reproducing taxa. Birky and colleagues refer to it as the 4x rule and argue that clades are sufficiently diverged by a number of generations equal to 4 times the effective population size. At this genetic distance, speciation is deep enough to be discerned from random genetic drift and other stochastic processes. It does not have to be exactly 4 times, but is actually the ratio of the average sequence diversity between groups to the nucleotide diversity among individuals within a groups. The point being that this is when two clades are reciprocally monophyletic at a statistical probability of 95% confidence.

What these authors try to do is introduce a rigorous way to define species that is based in existing theory. They differentiate this from DNA barcoding because the barcoding approach identifies species already defined by traditional taxonomy and uses empirically determined limits, not justified by any theoretical foundations. This also differs from traditional taxonomy because the authors feel that discernible phenotypes need not be present to distinguish between species, only reciprocal monophyly.

What I don’t really understand yet is how this really differs from the phylogenetic species concepts of the 1980s and ’90s. It may be that the population genetics species concept present a more rigorous and less subjective way to define species within a phylogenetic species concept. For instance, 2 closely-related taxa that are on the verge on being an obvious phylogenetic species may be discerned by using Birky and colleagues methodology as a decision rule.

The post ResearchBlogCast #11: A Population Genetics Species Concept? first appeared on Deep Sea News.

I was extremely flattered a year ago to be invited to join the academic editors at PLoS One. In that time I worked diligently to develop a Marine and Aquatic Science hub at the journal. I have accumulated what I consider to be an experienced team of academic editors who are both committed to open access but well respected researchers in their fields.  These include Zoe Finkel, Carlos Duarte, Geoffrey Trussell, John Bruno, Stuart Humphries, Stuart Sandin, and Steve Volmer, just to name a few.

Today the Marine and Aquatic Section is live. I am excited to introduce our first paper in the section.  Schmidt et al. examine the biogeography and population genetics of whale sharks demonstrating that disparate populations have considerable gene flow between them. Overall the paper cautions that conservation of whale sharks require global initiatives.

Please add Marine and Aquatic Science RSS feed to your readers!

The post Marine and Aquatic Science at PLoS One first appeared on Deep Sea News.